Vaccination Of Exotic Pets

This information has passed informally by word of mouth from zoo vet to zoo vet; breeder to breeder in endless variation over the years. The bulk of it winds its way back to the “Grand Masters” of wildlife disease, Richard J. Montali, Johns Hopkins University, Murray E. Fowler, College of Veterinary Medicine, Davis CA and Mitch Bush of the Smithsonian National Zoo.

Ninety-five percent of this information is based on observation, empirical data and conjecture. Very few scientific studies have been conducted on the effectiveness of vaccines on wildlife.

Vaccinating animals that already have a disease or are immune to them is not of value. So ideally, all big cats should have their blood serum submitted for PLV, FLV, FIP, FIV and feline Herpes-1 (Rhinotracheitis) titers before you consider vaccinating them. Protective titers are included in this paper. F.I.P. titer does not necessarily mean a cat has FIP or will become ill because several mild forms of cross-reacting corona virus exist. Also, many animals, which no longer have a measurable titer, may still be immune to a disease.

For a vaccine to work, all creatures must have a vibrant immune system. Most, wild animals are, fearful of new settings, new groups, diets, and odors. Stress of any form, weakens the immune system and decreases the effectiveness of all vaccines. So don’t rely on the effectiveness of vaccinations given to animals before they become accustomed to their new homes. Some species, by nature, adapt much more quickly than others. That is also why many breeders of wildlife give vaccinations twice as frequently (every 6 months) as indicated on the product label. If you do decide to vaccinate exotics more frequently than yearly, I would suggest non-adjuvented, inactivated (killed) vaccines, given with the shortest and smallest bore needle available (23-30 Gauge)(3).

All vaccines work by triggering changes in certain white blood cells – the lymphocytes, plasma cells and macrophages. During the 8-12 days following a vaccination, the plasma cells begin to produce antibodies (immunoglobulins). Some vaccines produce an immunity that lasts a lifetime, others, like Leptospirosis, Chlamydia and Bordatella vaccines probably last no more than six month.
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Alternatives to Vaccination

An alternative to over-vaccination is to have blood samples checked yearly for immunity levels (titer). One company offering this service is Antech Laboratories, (800) 838-4636 (see protective titres below).

When the mother has immunity to a disease, she passes it on to her offspring (with the exception of opossums and other marsupials) in her first milk (the colostrum). I use 12 weeks as a general rule of thumb as to how long this transient (maternal) antibody protects an offspring. It may be longer; it may be less – depending on the individual mother’s level of immunity. Yet, an occasional rare animal might loose its mother’s immunity earlier than 12 weeks and develop one of these diseases – which is why your vet may begin immunizations earlier. So, there is no perfect age to give vaccinations – it varies from animal-to-animal, species to species, case to case and on how isolated you can maintain the animal prior to vaccination. Diseases don’t come by taxi – you track them in or bring them in with contaminated supplies or animals.

I vaccinate against feline viral diseases in susceptible wild animals using a trivalent (three kinds) killed product, Fel-O-Vax manufactured by Fort Dodge Labs, Fort Dodge, IA 50501. I give one milliliter (1 ml) subcutaneously in the rear leg at 10-12 weeks, 16 weeks, six months and one year of age. I now give all feline vaccinations in the rear leg with the smallest needle available because of the increasing frequency of vaccine-induced tumors in cats. Feline vaccination-induced sarcomas are a widely discussed subject these days. I have been practicing since 1966 and have never seen a confirmed case but that is why I now give these vaccines in the leg rather than on the body. Since a simple injection of water through a 20-gauged needle causes inflammation similar to vaccines, although it is inconvenient, I suggest all vaccines be given to felines with a one ml tuberculin syringe and a 25-30-gauge needle. It appears that larger diameter needles sometimes carry a plug of skin and hair deep into the animal’s subcutaneous tissue or muscle and that this might be the cause of the inflammation and tumors rather than the products themselves. All vaccine manufacturers seem to be gradually changing their formulas to not include adjuvant (chemicals that enhance the vaccine’s action). An example is the Purvac line by Merial. All Cats are highly susceptible to oxidative damage – a theoretical cause of cancer and organ failure.
Fel-O-Vax group of vaccines by the Ft. Dodge Co. (http://www.wyeth.com/products/ahp_products/animal_health.asp) are the killed products I use, at 12 wks and every three weeks thereafter, for three initial vaccinations and another at six and twelve months of age and then yearly (some zoos- twice yearly). There are lots and lots of animals at zoos and perhaps the exposure rate there is very high, perhaps it’s just over-kill.

Fort Dodge Laboratories recently began marketing an FIV vaccine called Fel-O-Vax FIV, which is 60-80% effective in house cats. It is not clear that FIV positive wild cats will necessarily come down with the disease – but positive and negative animals should not be mixed. It is reported that all species of felines are susceptible to FIV (8). It is often spread by a bite. Signs vary from none to general unthriftiness and death. There is no treatment to cure infection.

FLV, FIP, PLV, Rhinotracheitis (Feline Herpesvirus), Chlamydia psittaci, and Calicivirus
I vaccinate exotic cats at 8-12 wks and 12-16 wks, and yearly thereafter.. The American Zoological Association and the European Endangered Species Program, suggest the Fel-O-Vax group of vaccines. http://abbott.com/animal_health/animal_health.html . The A.Z.A. is quite aggressive. They recommend exotic cats receive vaccinations at 6-8wks and every three weeks thereafter, for four initial vaccinations and another at six and twelve months of age and then yearly (some zoos- twice yearly). There are lots and lots of animals at zoos, new arrivals are stressed and perhaps at some zoos, the exposure rate to feral (wild domestic) cats and incoming felids there is very high --perhaps it’s just over-kill). A wiser alternative is to have a lab perform feline vaccination titers on your large cats yearly and compare them to the titres given earlier or the cat’s previous year titer (4). I give mature animals that have never been vaccinated two vaccinations of the products I use, three weeks apart. I also suggest that you and your animals be given supplemental oral vitamin E and C, which are known to protect against oxidative damage. (8)

Rabies:
I use Emrab-3 by Merial (888 637-4251) ( http://www.merial.com), at 12-18 weeks of age and then yearly. In some countries, Emrab-3 is marketed under the name, RABISIN. Others use Ft. Dodge’s Rabvac-3 (800 447-1365) (http://abbott.com/animal_health/animal_health.html). Both products are killed. Dr. Mitch Bush of the National Zoo, Washington, found that the 1 ml vial prepared for domestic cats produced serum titers (immunity) in tigers equal to those that protect house cats (9) HOWEVER, NO VACCINES ARE APPROVED BY THE UNITED STATES F.D.A. FOR USE IN WILD ANIMALS - with the exception of Merial’s Raboral V-RG oral rabies vaccine ( raboral@merial.com )

Feline Panleukopenia a.k.a. Feline Distemper (PLV):
I use Ft. Dodge’s Fel-o-vax LVKIII killed vaccine, in all exotic cats. I have seen no visible side effects. I do not run post-vaccination serum titer levels. This is the most common vaccine administered to exotic cats in the United States. Next comes Fel-o-vax IV, which has an added dead Chlamydia antigen). I know of two young un-immunized tigers, given Pfizer’s Felocell-R3, a live product, by accident. Neither developed any visible illness during the following 8 months I cared for them. I witnessed a similar incident when four un-immunized Central American otters were given modified live canine distemper vaccine intended for use in dogs – it did not appear to harm them during the succeeding 4 months. I give big cats an annual booster even though studies have found that immunity can persist 7.5 years from a single vaccination of killed virus. This is a tough virus to kill and it can linger around your caging areas a long time (3).

Leptospirosis:
All vaccine brands that I know of, use in the United States are safe, killed products. The vaccine label will indicate it is a bacterin, that is, a killed product. There are many strains of leptospira and I try to use a brand produced with as many serotypes as possible. Usually, the liquid vial is the Leptospirosis portion and can be given without opening the dry, powdered, viral vial. However, immunity is short – probably not over half a year (2-3 months in tigers) and not all Leptospira species may be included in the vial. Emphasis should be placed on strong immunity to Leptospira when animals are exposed to wet, damp environments, contaminated water, high wild rodent populations or when “triple D” meat-diets are being fed raw. I use the Leptospira liquid vial from Duramune Max/5/4L by Fort Dodge on all exotics that meet these criteria. This bacterin contains Leptospira grippostyphosa, L. icterohemorrhagiae and L. Pomona.

Feline Infectious Peritonitis (F.I.P.)
PRIMUCELL FIP has been given, intranasally, to Servals and Cheetahs with no side effects I am aware of, at 16 & 20 wks of age. Theoretically, it can’t survive at normal internal feline body temperatures and so the agent and immunity are confined to the nasal cavity. . FIP can be a big problem in Cheetahs. Also, more vaccine-induced rhinotracheitis has been reported in Cheetahs given live vaccine brands than other exotic cats. I have had no problems with Pfizer’s Primucell FIP attenuated live intra-nasal vaccine in any feline species (http://www.pfizer.com/ah/vet/tref/merch/3694005.html). About 5% of house cats will develop F.I.P if they are exposed to this virus. Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) has been confirmed in one Sumatran tiger; it may be becoming more common in large cats.

Feline Leukemia:
Cubs and kittens can be tested for FeLV at any age. They should be negative prior to being vaccinated for the disease. Merial’s PURVAX LEUCAT or PUREVAC non-adjuvented killed feline leukemia vaccines have caused no problems in any species I have administered them to. I know of documented cases of the disease only in mountain lions, cheetahs and clouded leopards and house cats. Some older AZA (5) literature indicates that no tigers have ever been found positive for Feline Leukemia. Experimentally, I have given it to skunks, ferrets and raccoons with no ill effects. There is no known need to vaccinate non-felids. I give them a booster subcutaneous vaccination annually subcutaneously in the left rear leg even though immunity probably lasts longer than one year. The virus only survives hours in the environment – light, drying and sanitation kill it readily.

Canine Distemper:
Since 1992, we have recognized the dog form of distemper in captive tigers leopards, jaguars and lions kept in Illinois and California. The symptoms are similar to those in domestic dog – sickness including diarrhea, head tilt, naso-ocular discharge, ataxia paralysis and pneumonia. Because of this I give these large cats attenuated FER-VAC-D or Merial's non-adjuvanted canine distemper PureVax (labeled for ferrets). Larger animals receive two 1ml doses. I would appreciate any feedback you-all might have on this subject.

Rhinotracheitis and Calicivirus.
These upper respiratory viral diseases have been reported in tigers. The signs similar to those reported in the domestic cat – nose and eye drainage, sneezing, and ulcers of the mouth. It spreads rapidly but is not fatal. Rhinotracheitis virus will probably remain your large cats for life and the disease can flare up during times of stress (2).

Toxoplasmosis:
If you can afford it, run periodic Toxoplasmosis titers on your animals.
A positive titer in the absence of active symptoms is actually a good thing. It means they have been exposed to the organism, carried in cat feces, and are now immune.

Parvovirus
Within the last six months, there have been reports of Canine Parvovirus, causing disease in domestic cats. Since the cat panleukopenia virus is also a Parvovirus, vaccination of felids for panleukopenia probably produces some cross-immunity and resistance.

Vaccination Boosters Are Not Required If Titers Match or Exceed:
Coronavirus of dogs: 1:5
Distemper of Dogs 1:5
Parvovirus of Dogs: 1:5
Adenovirus-2 of Dogs: 1:4
Rhinotracheitis of Cats: 1:16
Rabies: The C.D.C. considers 1:5 or greater protective for human beings and dogs
Calicivirus of Cats: 1:32
Panleukopenia of Cats (Feline Distemper): 1:5
Feline Leukemia: low-0.2-0.3, moderate-0.3-0.5, high=0.5-1.0
(Immunity to FLV is primarily cell-mediated so any titer may be protective)
Leptospira: Hard to interpret results because so many strains are involved. Titer of 1:400 is common in vaccinated animals.

2. Ferrets and other Mustella
Mink, martin, otters, sable, weasels fishers, wolverine, tayra, grissons, , badgers, skunks

I vaccinate ferrets, otters and skunks at 6-8 wks, 10-16 wks, and yearly thereafter with 1 ml of Imrab 3 rabies vaccine by Merial subcutaneously. IMRAB line is marked in some countries as RABISIN. For Canine distemper; I use Merial’s PUREVAX Ferret Distemper vaccine, a non-adjuvant canary pox product. I give a booster of each yearly. The veterinary literature is full of warning against using live canine vaccines in Ferrets and other Mustella. However, I know of four American otters and several short claw Asiatic otters that were inadvertently given the live Duramune Dog line by Ft. Dodge, with no ill effects over the next year.

Leptospirosis is said to affect all Mustella. The killed leptospirosis vial from Ft. Dodge’s LCI-GP line causes no ill effects in ferrets, but I rarely give it since I have never seen a case of leptospirosis in these animals. Ferrets are also said to be susceptible to Mink Viral Enteritis, Aleutian Disease of Mink, Pasteurellosis, and Salmonellosis but I do not vaccinate for these diseases either.

The following vaccines causes no adverse reaction when I administer them to my own six ferrets: Intranasal Naramune-2 Parainfluenze-Bordatella vaccine manufactured by Boehringer Ingelheim, Fort Dodge Duramune Max5/4/L canine distemper, leptospirosis, adenovirus, parvovirus vaccine, Purvac Feline 4 by Merial consisting of modified live panleukopena and Rhinotracheitis virus as well as killed Chlamydia psittaci , Fort Dodge Duramune Cv-K killed Canine Coronavirus vaccine, Ft. Dodge LymeVax Borrelia burgdoferi killed bacterin.

Some books still indicate that Ferrets are susceptible to Feline Distemper. I have never seen a case and do not vaccinate them for it.

Human influenza (experimentally, human influenza vaccine protected ferrets – but only against the prevalent strain-of-the-year). I have never administered it.

Anaphylactic (adverse) reactions to ferret vaccines are common. When I was still using Fervac D, I would give ferrets a test dose of 0.05ml of the vaccine and observe the ferret for 10 minutes before giving the remaining portion of the 1 ml dose. If adverse reactions occur, I give ferrets 0.1 ml of 2% pyrilamine maleate and 0.1ml of 1:1000 epinephrine. Some interesting data originated at the Purdue University Veterinary School (2). From 1997-1998 they used Schering-Plough’s Galaxy D (http://usa.spah.com/usa/products/product29.cfm?sID=1) or Fervac-D vaccine to vaccinate ferrets against canine distemper. Their protocol is to give an injection every 3-4 weeks until the ferrets are 14-16 weeks of age. They found that adverse reactions to the vaccines could be “minimized by thoroughly warming and mixing the contents of the vaccine vials for 5 minutes prior to use. They also never give more than a single injection to a ferret in the same 72 hours. They also pre-medicate the ferrets with an antihistamine, diphenhydramine, at 0.45mg/lb to help prevent adverse vaccine reactions. Their in-house studies indicate that both Canine distemper and rabies immunity in ferrets last “well over 3 years”. Some ferrets showed signs of immunity seven years after a single vaccination.

3. Procyonids
Raccoons, coatis, kinkajous

We have given one ml of Imrab-3 or subcutaneously to over 100 raccoons with no ill effects.
Another rehabilitation center has vaccinated a similar number of 12wk+ raccoons with Ft. Dodge’s Rabvac-3. Merial’s IMRAB line is marked in some countries as RABISIN.

At 6-8 wks, 10-16 weeks of age and yearly thereafter I vaccinate raccoons with Purvac Feline 4 by Merial or Fel-O-Vax produced by Ft. Dodge, against panleukopenia (feline distemper of cats) and with Duramune Max5/4/L by Fort Dodge Laboratories for canine distemper, leptospirosis and parvovirus of dogs. At 12-16 weeks of age I give them a 1ml subcutaneous injection of Merial’s Imrab-3 rabies vaccine. I give them boosters of these vaccines yearly. This use of Imrab-3 is “off-label” so no assurances of efficacy can be given. We just assume it works in raccoons since it has produced protective titer in many other species. Other veterinarians have successfully used United Vaccines’ Fervac-D as well as Distemink dog distemper vaccine designed for mink. I have also used Merial's non-adjuvanted canine distemper PureVax (labeled for ferrets) with no visible side effects.

At 8-10 wks, 12-16 weeks and 18-20 weeks of age and yearly thereafter I vaccinate canids with Duramune Max5/4/L by Fort Dodge Laboratories for canine distemper, leptospirosis and parvovirus of dogs. At 12-16 weeks of age I give them a 1ml subcutaneous injection of Merial’s Imrab-3 rabies vaccine. I give them boosters of these vaccines yearly. This use of Imrab-3 is “off-label” so no assurances of efficacy can be given. We just assume it works in these wild canids since it works in domestic dogs. An excellent oral rabies vaccine for exotic and wild animals is Merial’s RABORAL V-RG. However it can only be purchased, currently in bulk by State Veterinarians (1). Other veterinarians have successfully used United Vaccines’ Fervac-D as well as Distemink dog distemper vaccine designed for mink and Merial's non-adjuvanted canine distemper PureVax (labeled for ferrets) with no observable side effects.

It has been reported that hyenas may be susceptible to feline distemper. Because of this one could vaccinate hyenas with Ft. Dodge’s Fel-O-Vax line of panleukopenia vaccine.

Rabies
I vaccinate all rehab opossums with Merial’s Emrab-3 or Ft. Dodge’s Rabvac-3. EMRAB line is marked in some countries as RABISIN.
Experimentally, none of the common dog or cat modified live and killed vaccines cause visible side-effect

Sarcocystis:
Ft. Dodge’s killed Sarcocystis neuroni vaccine is a merizoite product labeled for horses. I have never used it in opossums. We rehabilitate hundreds but release them only vaccinated for rabies.

6. Bovids and Cervids
Hoof Stock, Bison, and Buffalo etc.

I use Merial’s RESPISHIELD 4L5 all- killed vaccine contains bovine rhinotracheitis, bovine virus diarrhea, parainfluenza 3, bovine respiratory syncytial virus vaccine, killed virus; and Leptospira canicola, L. grippotyphosa, L. hardjo, L. icterohaemorrhagiae, and L. pomona bacterin. I give 2 ml subcutaneously in the flank at 12 weeks 24 weeks, one year and yearly thereafter. I do not use their Reliant line because it is a modified live virus product. I have also used Ft. Dodge’s Presponse and Presponse HM to protect against 2 major causes of bacterial pneumonia, Pasteurella haemolytica and Pasteurella multocida.. I do not use their PYRAMID line because it is a modified live virus product.

Tetanus:
Ft. Dodge’s Tetanus toxoid (killed) is safe for use in all species. I give young animals a 1ml dose in their lower flank fold at 12 and 24 weeks and again yearly.

Brucellosis
The bacteria, Brucella spp. Occurs in many species throughout the world. It is associated with reproductive failure, in female animals and inflammation of the male reproductive glands in male animals. It is particularly a problem in wild and domestic buffalo, bison, deer, elk, sheep goats, cattle and occasionally horse. When it affects people, it is called Undulant Fever or Malta Fever. There are several species. I have read that over half the feral hogs in Florida carry it. It passes from animal to animal through milk and the membranes of after-birth. I also vaccinate l wild Cervids, Antelope & Gazelle for this disease. The old strain 19 vaccine went off the US market in 1997. It’s replacement, RB-51 by Colorado Serum Company (http://www.colorado-serum 800 525-2065) 2 ml can be given subcutaneously in the ventral flank fold . It is about 87% -90% effective in preventing the disease. I read that another killed vaccine for small hoof stock is marketed in New Zealand.

Clostridia Diseases
Too rich a grain-based diet is a common cause of Clostridial disease. The first sign of this disease is usually sudden death. Because of it’s link to rich diets, It has been called “overeating disease”. I use Boehringer Ingleheim’s Alpha-7 Clostridial vaccines line or Caliber-3; giving a 1cc dose subcutaneously in the flank at 12 –16 weeks of age and a 2ml dose at 4-6 month of age and yearly thereafter (www.boehringer-ingelheim.com). These vaccines often cause redness and swelling at the site of injection that lasts a few weeks. That is why I give it in the lower flank fold.

Caseous lymphadenitis
Swelling and abscess of lymph nodes as well as abscesses in the liver and lungs are common signs of this disease. It is caused by Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis and affects all wild and domestic ruminants – particularly those housed in small, damp quarters. A vaccine marketed to prevent this disease is Case-BacTM and Caseous D-T, produced by Colorado Serum Co. (http://www.colorado-serum). Caseous D-T is the bacterin toxoid in combination with Clostridium tetani; Clostridium perfringens type D antigens so it eliminates the need to give some of the vaccines mentioned earlier in this article. I generally give the first dose subcutaneously in the lateral flank fold at 12-14 weeks of age and a second dose 4 weeks later followed by boosters given yearly. As with other ruminant vaccines, it is common to have post-vaccination swelling and redness at the injection site. Occasional animals may be depressed for several days following vaccination.

7. Swine

Atrophic Rhinitis of Swine
I vaccinate all feral hogs and members of the swine (Suidae and Peccary) family for two of the causes of Atrophic Rhinitis: Mycoplasma hypopneumonia and Bordetella. For the mycoplasma, I use a killed product; M+PAC produced by Schering-Plough Animal Health, Omaha, NB (800) 211-3573 and give it in two 1ml doses, 3 weeks apart. . I have seen no side effects. I have not measured the protective antibodies that may have been produced. I also give them two successive, 36-day-interval doses of a modified live, intranasal vaccination against Bordetella bronchioseptica using Naramune-2, produced by Boehringer Ingelheim, St. Josephs, MO. USA. I have seen no side effects.

I vaccinate pet pigs with Merial’s Imrab-3. The IMRAB line is marked in some countries as RABISIN

8. Emus
I vaccinated Emus yearly with Triple-E Encephalomyelitis Vaccine against Eastern, Western and Venezuelan encephalitis, a mosquito-borne disease that killed these birds in Texas and Louisiana when I practiced there. This killed vaccine is marketed by SOLVAY Animal Health Inc, Mendota Heights, MN. USA. ========================================================================

I give all species of primates two 0.5cc IM Diptheria/Pertussis (whooping cough)/Tetanus (DPAT) vaccinations (DAPTACEL™ Avantis Pasteur Inc. 1 800 822-2463 www.vaccineshop.com MDs can order; DVMs can not). There were frequent problems with reactions to the older whole-cell pertussus containing vaccines (DPT). This is nearly eliminated with the new acellular vaccines such as Aventis’ DAPTACEL given at two months and six months of age. I do not vaccinate adult monkeys with this vaccine.
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Chimpanzees receive poliomyelitis: IPOL trivalent killed vaccine by Aventis Pasteur (1 800 822-2463 www.vaccineshop.com) 0.5 ml, Subcutaneously at 4 months and again at 6-18 months of age. If they are older, then I give two doses two months apart.

Measles, Mumps and Rubella (German measles)
To my knowledge, only measles is a potential problem in monkeys. However, the vaccine I purchase, M-M-R, by Merck & Co. Inc. immunizes against all three. I give the 0.5ml vaccine subcutaneously at four months and again at 8-12 months of age (Cardinal Inc. 1-800 635-6670 http://www.cardinal.com/ )

Tetanus
I use a human product, Aventis Tetanus Toxoid Adsorbed U.S.P. every 5 years (http://www.us.aventispasteur.com/VACCINES/Main.htm 800 822-2463). The Communicable Disease Center recommends humans receive a tetanus booster every 10 years but every four years is probably safer (10).

10. Tortoises
Southwest Florida is a hotbed of mycoplasmosis in native and non-native tortoises. The problem is increasing due to rapid urbanization and development, which squeeze the tortoises into smaller and smaller areas. The gopher and desert tortoises, Goperus polyphemus and Gopherus agassizii are fiercely territorial and quickly loose their natural resistance to this disease when they are crowded. When these animals are brought into our Sanctuary, we have found that monthly injections of 0.1ml of Shering-Plough M+PAC Mycoplasma hypopneumoniiae and 0.1ml of Ft. Dodge’s Mycoplasma gallisepticum bacterin, MG-Bac render these tortoises asymtomatic. We administer these vaccines subcutaneously and medial to the rear leg when average ambient temperature is 80F+.

I recently became aware of an important article by Dr. Richard Montali of the National Zoo describing his work using Meriel's Recommendations for Merial's PUREVAX (tm) Ferret Distemper Vaccine in Exotic Carnivores (http://66.70.134.35/recommendations_for_merial.htm ) This is a bioengineered vaccine that utilizes a pox disease of canaries as a carrier of portions of the rabies virus. This material can not cause rabies under any cercumstance. Merial's tests on the efficacy of this vaccine have been confined to ferrets. However, under Dr. Montali's direction PUREVAX has been used successfully in giant pandas, red pandas, raccoons, coatis, cacomistles, maned wolves, channel island foxes, fennec foxes, cusimanses, otters, lions, tigers, pumas, cheetahs and clouded leopards. According to this article "in general, immunogenicity appears to be favorable with some intraspecific variations and no untoward local or systemic reactions". Dr. Montail suggest that all exotic carnivores which may be susceptible to canine distemper receive 1ml of this vaccine two to three times at three week intervals followed by yearly revaccination. He suggests that the vaccine be administered intramuscularly rather than subcutaneously as recommended by the manufacturer.

References
1) Merial Technical Solutions Team 2002 Control of Raccoon Rabies Using Merial’s RABORAL V- RG vaccine
2) Gobel, T. Suppl. Compend. Cont. Educ. Prac. Vet Vol. 23, No 2(A) 2001
3) Macy, D. Feline Immunization. Veterinary Forum. Dec. 2001
4) Antech Laboratories, New York. Personal Communication
5) American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums
6) Fowler, M. Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. Current Therapy 3, 1993
7) Journal of the American Medical Association Vol. 287 3223-3229
8) American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums 2002
9) Johnson-Delaney, Cathy. Exotic Pet medicine II Vol 24, No. 1 Jan. 94.
10) Serologic Immunity to Diphtheria and Tetanus in the United States Ann
Intern. Med. 136: 660-666; 2002

8/6/06 Dr. Hines,
I just wanted to pass some valuable info along to some of your readers regarding vaccines for their raccoons. First, it should be noted that the primary disease concerns for young raccoon babies are Distemper and Parvo viruses. Also, raccoons cannot develop clinical symptoms of the canine variety of Parvo. In other words, the canine variety does not make the animal sick. Raccoons are affected by the Feline Distemper virus, Panleukapenia (which is a type of Parvo virus) and Canine Distemper. Further, many folks assume that the mother's colostrum milk provides antibodies that protect the babies while nursing. This is only true if the mother has been vaccinated or has survived the disease herself. The animals are highly vulnerable to these diseases if allowed to roam around your yard, especially if the possibility exists for stray cats or dogs to frequent the areas. Parvo can live for months in the grass and organic matter in your yard. I recently raised 3 young coons to 12 weeks of age only to lose them all to Parvo the last week of their lives. They were never exposed to any live animals. I simply allowed them to wander around my back yard for short periods of time. They were obviously exposed to the disease during that time. They had not been vaccinated. Most animal rehab facilities agree that vaccinations will virtually eliminate the possibility of death by contracting the viruses. In the event that your animal suddenly becomes sick from Parvo exposure, it is imperitive to begin treatment immediately. This involves intensive antibiotic, antidiarrheal, and anti vomiting treatment as well as preventing dehydration. Most often, the animals die from secondary infections caused by the disease and not the disease itself. Parvo is not necessarily fatal if treated early.
The proper procedure to follow is to begin vaccinating the baby coons as soon as you take possession and assume they have no maternal antibody protection.Begin by giving the baby coons a Ft. Dodge. Duramune 5 way Canine Distemper shot without the Lepto. One week later, vaccinate with a Felovax IV Feline Distemper vaccination. Do not use the Felovax containing Feline Leukemia vaccine! Then every 3-4 weeks, give both of the above vaccines one in each shoulder subcutaneously until the animals are 16 weeks old. The second and remaining series of the Duramune 5 Way may then contain the Lepto vaccine if desired. This is for the owner's protection and not the animal's. Ft. Dodge recommends that you keep the animals quarantined until they have had at least two rounds of vaccines which should afford some antibody protection from the diseases. I recommend waiting until they have completed the vaccinations. This information is based on my personal experiences as well as consultations with the vaccine manufacturer and leading medical researchers in this area of wildlife medicine.
Good Luck! C

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Dr Hines,
Hello again. After losing all three of my kitten coons this spring to Panleukopenia at 12 weeks old, I sterilized my facilities with bleach and decided to try raising more next spring when my female got pregnant. However, she was bred again later this spring and I now have two more kittens (raccoons) that are now 7 weeks old. This time, I gave them a Felo-Vax 4 shot at 2 weeks, 4 weeks and again at 6 weeks. I have enough vaccine left to shoot them again at 8 and 10 weeks of age. As the mother is completely wild, I am fairly certain she has no antibodies to pass along. In your opinion, what sort of immunity would you guess the 7 week old babies would currently have after the 3 shots they have already received? I am vaccinating them every 2 weeks at the suggestion of a virologist with XXXX Vet School. He advised not to give them the Duramune as some raccoons actually become sickened from the modified Canine Distemper. He further advised that if I decided to vaccinate later for the Canine Distemper, I should wait until they are around 4 months old, since they are not exposed to any dogs. I have kept these babies quarantined in my home rather than placing them in the outside enclosures. They are just about to be weaned off of KMR to puppy chow. Thanks for any suggestions.C

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Ask the Veterinarian, Veterinary question, Ask the Vet, Veterinary Advice, Dr. Ron Hines.